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Step 1: Initial Setup

Step 2: Minimum Requirements

Check the minimum requirements for running Ubuntu on your PC.
If everything is fine, you will see green tick marks. You can also select to download updates and install third-party software. Then click Forward.

Step 3: Partitioning

You can choose either:

Erase disk – if you want Ubuntu to use the entire disk.
Specify partitions manually – if you want custom partitions.

Manual partitioning steps:

Select free space and click Add.
Create a primary partition (~70% of free space) with ext3 journaling file system, mount point /.
Select free space again, create a /boot partition (~300MB, ext3).
Create swap partition (~2× RAM size).

Step 4: Installing Ubuntu

Click Install Now. Select your location and click Forward.

Step 5: Keyboard Layout

Select your desired keyboard layout and click Forward.

Step 6: User Details

Fill in your personal details:

Name
Computer name
Username
Password

Click Forward to let Ubuntu copy essential files.

After installation, restart your PC and remove the CD.
Ubuntu will display the login screen. Choose your user and enter your password.

Step 8: Essential Linux Commands

Some useful Linux commands:

ddrescue – data recovery tool
declare – declare variables and attributes
df – display free disk space
diff – compare files
dig – DNS lookup
echo – display message on screen
grep – search files
ls – list directory contents

For a complete list, see SS64 Linux Commands

Step 9: Shell Script Example

Experiment 2a: Shell script to check files

Algorithm:

Check if at least one argument is provided.
For each argument:
- If it’s a directory → print “is directory”
- If it’s a file → print “is file” and number of lines
- Else → print “not a file or directory”

Script (4.sh):

#!/bin/bash

if [ $# -lt 1 ]; then
    echo "Enter at least one input file name"
else
    for i in "$@"; do
        if [ -d "$i" ]; then
            echo "$i is a directory"
        elif [ -f "$i" ]; then
            echo "$i is a file: $i"
            echo "No of lines: $(wc -l < "$i")"
        else
            echo "$i is not a file or directory"
        fi
    done
fi

Bilal